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Clay pebblesHydroponicsPlanting

HYDRO ORGANIC CLAY BALLS PREMIUM HYDROPONIC

Hydro Clay, quality substrate consisting of spheres of expanded clay, which provide inert structural support for plant roots in hydroponic systems. The consistently round shape (8-16mm, 20-40mm) provides a high degree of aeration, which ensures extremely quick drainage and unimpeded root growth.

The clay balls are also less susceptible to pest and disease than other solid substrates. Hydro Clay is an ideal substrate to provide structural support and ensure the efficient drainage of liquid during plant growth.

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Clover Industrial2024-09-240 Comments
Clay pebblesHydroponics

Hydro clay ball

Hydro Clay Balls are a great growing medium substrate for hydroponics consisting of spheres of expanded clay, which provide inert structural support for plant roots in hydroponic and aquaponics systems.

The clay pebbles are manufactured from special types of clay that have a low soluble salt content. Because of this, they are particularly suited for use in closed hydroponic cultivation systems. They have both high porosity and high air content which stimulate the development of strong roots that grip the substrate well.

General Directions For Use:

General rule of thumb to follow in irrigating plants is to apply 10-15% more water than the container will hold. Frequency of application will depend upon plant size and grow room temperature, but will vary from one 15 minute feed every hour while the lights are on during the first weeks of growth then one 15 minute feed every two hours starting several minutes before the lamps have been turned on. Only water the plants in the day period.

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Clover Industrial2024-07-110 Comments
Clay pebblesConstruction

Density and fluidization rate factors of clay pebbles/ leca blocks

Concrete is generally used instead of gravel and pebbles. The solid waste of leca blocks, varies in color, usually black, and the matte surface is smooth. The internal structure is fine honeycomb.

Leca blocks 3 types

According to the density, they are divided into three types: general density type, ultra-light density type, and optical density type. It has high strength and is used for insulating concrete or reinforced concrete structures. The price is more reasonable. 

Leca bolcks is economic

High-quality leca blocks cost affects project investment and operating costs. Although cheap natural materials are used for filter media, investment can be saved, but the properties such as density and fluidization rate are not suitable for backwashing, which may increase energy consumption and affect operating costs.

Some synthetic filter materials have good performance but are costly, price is too high. Therefore, the choice should take into account both performance and price. 

The nitrification function of the biological aerated filter is the best when the particle size is 2-4mm.

At present, the particle size of the filter material commonly used in the biological aerated filter is 3-6mm, and the thickness of the filter layer is 3-4mm.

Leca blocks benefits

 The clay pebbles/ leca is a kind of light artificial particle with unique performance, which is widely used in the preparation of high-rise building structure concrete, roof slope finding, thermal insulation, sewage treatment, landscaping, soilless cultivation and other fields.

It has a proper packing density of the filter material, and the layer voids are evenly distributed, making backwashing easy, with low backwashing consumption, small water consumption, small water head loss, and no material leakage during backwashing.

The high-quality have overcome the shortcomings of backwashing being difficult to control and running out of materials. It adopts good particle size distribution, strong dirt holding capacity and high utilization rate of filter material. The water head increases slowly, the operation period is long, and the water production is large. The concrete of clay pebbles/ leca blocks is better than ordinary concrete in acid, alkali corrosion and frost resistance.

Concrete of clay pebbles/ leca blocks is an excellent building material

For the concrete of No. 250 fly ash clay pebbles/ leca block, the strength loss of 15 freeze-thaw cycles is not more than 2%. In 1976, relevant departments conducted actual measurements on the concrete projects of leca blocks built since 1985. The results showed that no matter whether it was prefabricated or cast-in-place, indoor or outdoor, the steel bars contained in them were not corroded. The depth of carbonization is generally not more than 30 mm, and the strength can continue to grow in the later stage. It can be seen that the concrete of clay pebbles/ leca blocks is an excellent building material and should be vigorously promoted.

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Clover Industrial2023-07-260 Comments
Clay pebblesConstruction

Toilet use clay pebbles/ leca backfill steps

Toilets backfill clay pebbles/ leca is a special building material, which is widely used in toilets and places where water is frequently used. 

Bathrooms backfill clay pebbles/ leca has many excellent properties.

First of all, in terms of its weight, it is much lighter than the commonly used construction waste backfills materials. At the same time, it is much more convenient to use and will not cause any pollution or damage to the environment.

Secondly, even its water absorption and dirt absorption ability are also excellent, which virtually ensures the cleanliness of the bathroom environment. In fact, there are many friends around us who are curious when they first learned about the clay pebbles/ leca backfilling in the bathroom.

What are the steps for using clay pebbles/ leca in the backfilling of the bathroom?

First of all, in order to ensure that the water seepage from the upper layer of the waterproof layer will not spread to the surroundings, it is necessary to make waterproof coatings on both sides, both the upper and lower sides, and it must be connected with the wall. The height of the wall should be 40 meters higher than the upper edge of the caisson. cm or more.

Second, use concrete as a partition overhead, and divide the caisson into several 400×400 grids. Many people do not see the importance of such a load-bearing partition. In fact, this measure cannot be ignored. It can prevent the concrete above from falling Otherwise, it may cause the bathroom floor to sink, crack and leak after a few years.

Third, the next step is filling. Fill the moisture-proof ceramic particles into the grid, and don’t press it too tightly, because its function is not load-bearing but sound insulation and filling.

The fourth is to arrange a layer of 30 cm × 30 cm steel mesh composed of steel bars with a diameter of about 10 mm on the grid to ensure the firmness and uniform stress of the clay pebbles/ leca concrete layer.

Finally, the concrete layer is rammed, and the vibrating pump is added for construction, and the fine stone concrete with a thickness of 10 cm is leveled. This layer still needs to be made with a drain slope, and then waterproof materials are made twice, and it is done together with the wall. After it dries up, it needs to be brushed with plain grout to protect it.

In fact, the process of backfilling the bathroom floor with clay pebbles/ leca is not very complicated. As long as some key parts are done, the effect will be achieved. At the same time, clay pebbles/ leca is an environmentally friendly material that can be recycled and reused, and it can also play a role in environmental protection.

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Clover Industrial2023-07-240 Comments
Clay pebblesConstructionLandscaping

Matters needing attention when purchasing clay pebbles/ leca

Need to compare more leca from different suppliers.

First: The quality of the products, this is an important, so for us, generally the clay pebbles/ leca you see is the picture of the sample, the product quality is good, and the size of the specification is not much different, but when you see the bulk cargo, it is different. The size  is uneven, and the surface will be broken when pinched. These are all defective clay pebbles/ leca. At this time, you should compare more manufacturers and choose some powerful product. It is very important for a manufacturer to have perfect inspection and testing.

Check the quality after receiving

Sceond: After purchasing, you need to check the quantity you received is sufficient or not. Some manufacturers ship less than what you want. When your cargo is delivered, pay attention to whether the quantity is enough. This can be avoided.

After sale service

Third: Perfect after-sales service. A perfect after-sales service for building materials, such as building materials, can save you from such trouble when you buy again. A good clay pebbles/ leca company should have perfect after-sales service, so that you can buy with confidence.

Leca quality is the same important as the price

Last: When buying clay pebbles/ leca, you can inquire about several companies and want to make comparisons. Sometimes you get what you pay for, cheap ones are maybe good, but expensive ones must have expensive benefits. We have seen many clients to compare by the pictures, the difference can be seen at a glance. The cheap one will be broken when pinched. If you use that kind of leca for construction, you must be afraid of it, its compressive performance is too poor, and the later renovation and maintenance will not work.

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Clover Industrial2023-07-190 Comments
Clay pebblesLandscapingPlantingTips

Application of clay pebbles/ leca in gardening and landsacping

The application of clay pebbles/ leca in gardening and gardening is a new use developed in recent years. In this regard, China already has a large amount of use, and the amount of clay pebbles/ leca used in gardening and gardening has accounted for about 5% of the output of clay pebbles/ leca. With the acceleration of urban construction, horticultural clay pebbles/ leca will have greater development, and its output will continue to increase. It is estimated that by 2010, the application of China’s clay pebbles/ leca in horticulture and gardening will reach about 10% of the total output, and it will also become one of the main uses of clay pebbles/ leca.

(1) Application in tree ponds, flower ponds, flower beds, and ground covering decoration When we go to Beijing now, we will see a layer of dark red balls covering the tree ponds and flower beds on both sides of the street, which is very beautiful. This is clay pebbles/ leca overlay. It can make the street look more beautiful, and can prevent tree ponds and flower ponds from being dusted by strong winds. It is beneficial to the purification of the air, and other cities have begun to cover tree ponds, flower ponds, flower beds and grounds with clay pebbles/ leca, and its consumption will increase year by year.

(2) Application in soilless cultivation of flowers Soilless cultivation is an emerging flower cultivation technology in recent years. The substrate raw materials used in the past are perlite, glass wool, pebbles, etc. In recent years, clay pebbles/ leca has been used as the cultivation substrate. . This is because clay pebbles/ leca is light, water-absorbent, and can provide certain nutrients, which is superior to other substrates. You can plant flowers and grass by putting clay pebbles/ leca in the flower tray. It is clean and tidy, and can be cleaned repeatedly without soil pollution, so it is more popular among people.

 

 

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Clover Industrial2023-07-180 Comments
Clay pebblesConstruction

Construct the dream of green building, new building clay aggregate concrete attracts attention

The history of human civilization changes includes numerous changes in building materials, and every progress embodies human wisdom.

It is precisely because of people’s complex of Qin bricks, Han tiles and tiles for thousands of years that this vast land is riddled with holes, reduced cultivated land, soil erosion, and ecological environment damage. “But save a square inch of land and leave it to your descendants to cultivate.” This is a helpless cry.

We clearly see that with the rapid development of cities, various types of construction waste are also increasing, and “garbage siege” has become an unbearable burden on the development road of many cities. In order to change this situation, during the “Twelfth Five-Year Plan” period, the state promulgated a mandatory standard for building energy efficiency to reach 65% nationwide, but very few lightweight wall materials on the market meet this indicator.

Therefore, we took the lead in starting the resource utilization of construction waste. Scientific and technological research, departmental linkage, and pilot projects first, use urban domestic sludge and river and lake sludge, construction waste, factory pulverized coal powder and other materials to obtain a low-cost, low-density, high-strength, low thermal conductivity, and corrosion-resistant material through expansion.

Strong sludge clay aggregate is used as aggregate, and the traditional chemical foaming method is improved to a physical foaming method to develop a self-insulating masonry material for green building energy saving. The block combines the advantages of clay aggregate and reinforced foam concrete, which makes it have light density, high strength, excellent heat insulation performance, small shrinkage, low water absorption and impermeability compared with general foam concrete self-insulation blocks. Strong, good frost resistance, excellent fire resistance and durability, good sound insulation and sound absorption effect, and has good shock absorption and shock resistance.

In the production process, a fully automatic frequency conversion numerical control cutting system is used to ensure the accurate size of the product, which indirectly improves the quality of the wall, so that the wall made of this kind of clay aggregate reinforced foam concrete self-insulating block has high later strength and the same service life of the building. Significant advantages. The green building using this product has huge economic and social effects, the building load is greatly reduced compared with ordinary buildings, and there is no need for internal and external wall insulation and waterproofing, reducing thermal bridges and cold bridges. Especially suitable for use in hot summer and cold winter regions.

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Clover Industrial2023-06-190 Comments
Clay pebblesWater treatment

Application of clay aggregate in Biological Aerated Filter

Since the 1980s, the biological aerated filter (BAF) has received widespread attention and has become a research hotspot at home and abroad. As a new type of high-efficiency biofilm sewage treatment technology, it has good applications in the removal of organic matter in sewage, nitrogen and phosphorus removal, and industrial wastewater treatment.

1. Biological aerated filter (BAF)
1) Biological aerated filter (BAF) – basic principle
The basic principle of BAF is to use granular fillers as the medium to achieve the purpose of removing pollutants in water through the adsorption and interception of biofilms and extracellular polymers attached to the fillers, the oxidative decomposition of microorganisms, and the hierarchical predation of food chains formed along the direction of water flow. The function of denitrification and phosphorus removal is realized by utilizing the existence of aerobic and anoxic regions in the reactor.
2) Biological aerated filter (BAF) – characteristics
BAF features: This technology has the advantages of good effluent quality, short hydraulic retention time, small footprint, low investment and operating costs, strong impact load resistance and convenient management. It is an environmentally friendly, economical, efficient and energy-saving sewage treatment. New technology, which can realize the renewable and sustainable utilization of water resources, is very suitable for the shortage of water resources, insufficient funds, and relatively backward technology in my country’s sewage treatment. We should increase research and development efforts. At the same time, you can view more technical documents on China Sewage Treatment Engineering Network.
3) Biological aerated filter (BAF) – filler
In the biological aerated filter, the filler is the core component, which is extremely important to the treatment effect and operation control of the biological aerated filter. First of all, as the carrier of microorganisms, the filler affects the growth, reproduction, shedding, shape and spatial structure of the biofilm, provides a stable environment for the microorganisms to inhabit and reproduce, and can maintain a large amount of microorganisms; secondly, the filler is the biofilm in the reactor. The place where the biofilm is in contact with the wastewater, and can have a mandatory turbulent effect on the water flow, so that the wastewater can be redistributed; in addition, the filler is used as a medium for removing suspended solids, and its filtration performance affects the biological aerated filter. removal effect.

2. Types and characteristics of biological filter materials
1) Types of biological filter materials
The fillers used in the biological aerated filter can be divided into inorganic fillers and organic polymer fillers according to the different raw materials used.
Commonly used inorganic fillers are: clay aggregate, coke, quartz sand, activated carbon, expanded aluminosilicate, etc.);
Organic polymer fillers include: polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene PE, various resins, plastics (including various foam materials), fibers
2) Characteristics of biological fillers
①Granular filler: This is the earliest filler that has been used up to now, and its material is inorganic clay aggregate or quartz sand. The main characteristics of this type of packing are rough surface, easy to attach organisms, and strong ability to intercept suspended pollutants. The disadvantage is that it has large resistance and is easy to block.
② Irregular granular packing: Raschig ring (RaschingRing) Pall ring (PallRing) in the early days, currently commonly used are Hacketten ball (Hacketten) and multi-faceted hollow ball, etc., which can be made of ceramic graphite, plastic or metal. Simple structure, low price, but uneven fluid distribution;
③Fiberglass or plastic filler: smooth surface, poor biofilm adhesion, easy to age, often prone to clogging in actual use. The water flow in the soft filler is not ideal, and it is easy to produce balls, which greatly reduces the surface area, and then produces anaerobic effect inside the balls, affecting the treatment effect;
④ Activated carbon particles: large specific surface area, many pores, but expensive, and because the surface pore size is too small, most microporous microorganisms cannot be used;
⑤Plastic fiber filler: light weight, hard, but smooth surface, small porosity, not easy to hang film; fiber filler generally has shortcomings such as easy agglomeration and difficult filling;
⑥Honeycomb or corrugated plate packing: the material is usually glass fiber reinforced plastic or plastic (polyethylene polystyrene and polypropylene, etc.), and its main advantages are high void ratio, simple structure, light weight but high strength, good anti-corrosion performance, and aging resistance. The main disadvantages such as the easy shedding of organisms are that the growth and shedding balance of organisms on the surface of the filler is not easy to control, and it is difficult to obtain a uniform flow rate spherical lightweight clay aggregate in the filler;
⑦Spherical lightweight clay aggregate: It is made of clay as raw material, adding appropriate chemical raw materials as expansion agent, and firing at high temperature. It has many advantages that other traditional fillers do not have: high strength, large porosity, large specific surface area, good chemical stability, suitable density, and strong bio-adhesion.

3.Effect of filler on the efficiency of biological aerated filter
1) Influence of filler particle size
The particle size of the filler has an important influence on the treatment efficiency and operation cycle of the biological aerated filter. The smaller the particle size of the filler, the better the treatment effect. Backwashing, and it is not easy to play the role of the deep layer of the filler. Therefore, the selection of filler for the biological aerated filter needs to consider the treatment efficiency and operation cycle of the filter at the same time, and optimize the selection according to the water quality and treatment requirements of the filter.
2) The density of the filler
The density of the biofilter filler is related to the backwash intensity of the biofilter. The greater the density, the greater the backwash intensity, and the greater the energy consumption; therefore, when selecting the biofilter filler, it is necessary to measure the various fillers. Density. Units with waste water that need to be treated can also consult companies with similar sewage treatment experience on the Sewage Bao project service platform.
3) Filling layer height
The height of the filter layer is related to the quality of the effluent. Within a certain range, increasing the height of the filter layer can improve the treatment effect of the filter and ensure the quality of the effluent, but at the same time, the increased sewage lifting head and backwashing intensity will lead to increased energy consumption.

4. A new type of filler – biological clay aggregate
1) Types of biological clay aggregate
① Spherical lightweight clay aggregate: clay (mainly composed of metaaluminosilicate) is used as the main raw material, and appropriate chemical raw materials are added as expansion agents, which are fired at high temperature. The clay aggregate is easy for microorganisms to grow, fast to form a film, and after contacting with nutrients in wastewater, it has a high transfer rate, fast adsorption and oxidation speed, and high treatment efficiency.
② Fly ash clay aggregate: Fly ash clay aggregate is generally spherical, the surface is rough and hard, and there are many micropores in the honeycomb shape. The advantages of fly ash clay aggregate and its products mainly lie in four aspects: excellent performance, good economic benefits, strong construction adaptability and wide application range.
③ Nano-modified clay aggregate: The dispersed phase of nano-powder particles has a large specific surface area and strong interface effect, and is attached to the surface of the clay aggregate filler and the surface of the internal pores to provide high roughness for the film formation and start-up of the reactor, thereby improving Bacterial proliferation rate and biofilm formation rate.
④ Korean EPP filler: The filler is made by mixing polypropylene resin powder and powdered activated carbon in a certain proportion to form a masterbatch containing activated carbon, and then extruding the masterbatch to produce expanded polypropylene filler. Because the filler contains powdered activated carbon, it has strong organic adsorption capacity and porosity suitable for microbial growth.
⑤ Sewage plant sludge and river bottom sludge filler: a new type of sludge filler prepared with sewage plant sludge or river bottom sludge as the main raw material and clay and water glass as additives. Its removal effect on ammonia nitrogen, COD, turbidity, etc. is better than ordinary clay aggregate, meets the requirements of biofilm carrier, and creates another way for sludge resource utilization.
2) Performance indicators suitable for biofilter fillers
The clay aggregate generally used in BAFs is selected based on:
①　The particle size is above 5mm (the smaller the particle size, the more clogged it will be);
②　The bulk density is generally between 500~800kg/m³ (it cannot float on the water surface and depends on the upstream velocity of BAFs);
③　The higher the water absorption, the better;
④　Have a certain compressive strength (above 2.5Mpa);
⑤　The sphericity coefficient is above 0.95;
⑥　Color is not the standard to determine the quality of clay aggregate;
⑦　The specific surface area is preferably 8.0㎡/g (the bigger the better);
⑧　The slag dropping rate is less than 0.5%;
⑨　The soluble rate of hydrochloric acid is less than 1%.

5. Biological sludge clay aggregate
my country has developed the “sludge bio-clay aggregate” production technology, and successfully prepared a new type of biological aerated filter filler – sludge bio-clay aggregate. In the research, it was found that compared with commercial clay aggregate, sludge bio-clay aggregate has the characteristics of high porosity, high specific surface area, and high efficiency of wastewater treatment. In addition, since the sludge contains a variety of trace elements, it can promote the growth of microorganisms very well, so it is easy to form a film, and has higher removal efficiency of nitrogen and phosphorus and COD for industrial wastewater and domestic sewage.
The internal pores of sludge biological clay aggregate are extremely developed, and there are 300-600 μm large pores between the skeletons and 30-50 μm small pores inside the skeletons. The large pores between the skeletons can provide an environment for the growth of anaerobic or facultative microorganisms, and increase the specific surface area of the clay aggregate. The small pores inside the skeleton are basically not connected to the large external space, which mainly plays a role in reducing the weight of the clay aggregate. This kind of sludge biological clay aggregate further proves that it meets the requirements of BAF filler in terms of micro-structure.

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Clover Industrial2023-06-160 Comments
Clay pebblesConstruction

Light weight expanded clay aggregate.

As a new type of environmentally friendly material, clay pebbles (LECA) was mainly used in the construction industry at the beginning. It is a porous and lightweight particle formed by high temperature expansion of clay. It has a series of functions such as heat preservation, heat insulation, fire prevention, and earthquake resistance. Because of its cheap price, with good adsorption and air permeability, it is now widely used in gardening and water treatment and other related fields. It is divided into various models, not only the size of the particles, but also the natural color and color. Colored clay pebbles (LECA) is mainly used for in the decoration industry, it can also be used to fix the root system of hydroponic plants and increase the ornamental value.

clay pebbles (LECA) has the following characteristics:
clay pebbles (LECA) is a light particle after high temperature expansion. Although it contains a small amount of mineral trace elements, it does not contain organic matter and belongs to a sterile matrix. It has a light weight and a porous honeycomb structure inside, which has certain adsorption and air permeability. 80% of its uses are used in the construction industry. In the gardening field, it is generally used to cushion the bottom of flowerpots, act as paving stones, and fix the roots of hydroponic plants, or used to purify and stabilize water quality in fish tanks and aquariums. It is rarely used for soil preparation because it does not contain organic matter and is not easy to decompose. The effect of soil preparation is not as good as medical stone, vermiculite, red jade soil and other mineral particle substrates.

The main role of clay pebbles (LECA) in gardening and home furnishing:
① Act as a paving stone:
The particle size of clay pebbles (LECA) is relatively uniform, the material is light, and the price is very cheap. It can be used as a paving stone to prevent the soil from splashing around when watering, to avoid the floating of light substrates such as coconut peat and perlite, and to prevent the soil from being directly exposed to water. In the natural environment, it can also isolate the peculiar smell of the soil, prevent the breeding of mosquitoes in summer, and increase the ornamental value of potted plants.

② Cushion the bottom of the flowerpot:
Using clay pebbles (LECA) to cushion the bottom of the flowerpot can play the role of a hydrophobic layer, which saves soil and breathes air. When potting or changing potted plants, you can first spread a layer of clay pebbles (LECA) on the bottom of the pot, which can not only save nutrient soil, but also prevent the soil from losing from the bottom hole of the pot when watering, and at the same time protect It can prevent water accumulation in the pot and increase the air permeability of the root system.

③ Hydroponic flowers:
When growing hydroponic plants or carrying out soilless cultivation (hydroponics), spread a layer of colored clay pebbles (LECA) on the bottom of the hydroponic container, which can not only fix the root system, increase the oxygen content of the root system, but also purify the water quality, and at the same time let the single water Cultivated plants look more aesthetically pleasing.

④Purification of water quality in fish tanks and grass tanks:
The porous structure of clay pebbles (LECA) honeycomb has a certain degree of adsorption, so it has the function of purifying and stabilizing water quality and can be used as the bottom sand of fish tanks and grass tanks. However, it should be noted that the clay pebbles (LECA) used in the aquarium belongs to clay pebbles (LECA) sand, the particles are relatively small, and the material is heavier than ordinary clay pebbles (LECA), and it will not float on the water surface, but it needs to be cleaned many times before use. of dust.

As a high-quality granular matrix, clay pebbles (LECA) not only exerts its unique advantages in the construction field, but also exerts its waste heat for the gardening family. You can choose the specific particle size and color according to your actual needs.
Suggestion: Use 3-5 mm small particles for paving, 5-8 mm large particles for the bottom of the flowerpot, colored clay pebbles (LECA) for hydroponics, and special clay pebbles (LECA) sand for aquariums. As for growing flowers with soil, it is better to use peat, perlite, and coconut peat. These three most commonly used substrates can be mixed together, so that most of the potted plants can be used universally.

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Clover Industrial2023-06-150 Comments
Clay pebblesConstructionPlanting

Lightweight expanded clay aggregate suppliers, Properties Analysis

Lightweight expanded clay aggregate supplier

Lightweight expanded clay aggregate is a relatively popular material. It can not only be used to plant plants and flowers, but also can be used to backfill buildings, so its performance is still good. So, what about the specific performance of clay pebbles? The editor of clay pebbles will take you to understand it together today.

Specifc performance in constuction

First of all, the frost resistance of clay ball is very good, which can be regarded as a great advantage of it! The main reason is that it has good anti-permeability, so clay pebbles is used for construction in winter, which is relatively reliable. On the other hand, its earthquake resistance is also good. After the earthquake, many buildings collapsed, but the LECA balls building is still very complete, so it is relatively earthquake-resistant, so it should be widely used. People love it There is also a reason.

Hard, not easily broken

In addition to the above two properties, there is another point, that is, the performance of leca aggregate is stable and will not easily deteriorate. This is very practical, because it can be used for a long time!

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Clover Industrial2023-06-020 Comments